An Investigation into the activity of A Amylase

An Investigation into the activity of A Amylase Alpha amylase is an enzyme. It specific binds with water and starch . It hydrolyses starch and glycogen to give glucose and maltose. It acts on the alpha bonds of polysaccharides. Because of the specificity of the enzymes activity the structure of the enzyme must be precise. Any factor which will cause denaturation of the enzyme will restrict its rate of activity. Two of the most important factors effecting Alpha amylase activity are temperature and pH. The following experiment is designed to investigate the effect of different environmental temperatures and pH on the activity rate of Barley amylase. Materials and Methods As per schedule, No procedures were changed from original schedule. Results: The results are recorded as the time when colour change indicated that all the starch had been hydrolysed. A dark blue-black colour signified the presence of starch. When this colour is lost and an amber-yellow colour develops indicating that all the starch is hydrolysed, the time is recorded. The results indicate that the activity of alpha amylase increases with decreasing acidity and is highest at pH7. The trend in effect of temperature on amylase activity is that it increases in the middle range but is inactive at extreme temperatures. The results do not agree with the expected results of previous similar experiments and repeats of the same experiment within the class do not concur with others Discussion The hypothesis being tested is that enzymatic reactions are effected by a number of external factors. Temperature and pH are thought to be the most important extrinsic factors. The objective was to examine the activity of the enzyme ÃŽÂ ±-amylase under the effect of increasing environmental temperatures and increasing pH levels and to determine the optimal temperature and pH for Alpha amylase activity. The starch medium selected was Barley. This is a good choice due to its ready availability, the ease of preparation and the body of work available on understanding its germination process due to its importance in the brewing industry. Barley is composed of 53% to 65% dry weight starch (Fox et al (2003), MacGregor 1978, Sanford et al 2003). Barley produces its own amylases during the germination period. The changes in the levels of ÃŽÂ ±- amylase detected in barley during germination are outlined by McGregor et al (1984). The breakdown of starch in barley involves two types of amylase ÃŽÂ ±-amylase and ÃŽÂ ²-amylase. The former works by hydrolysing the 1-4 bonds within the glucose chain exposing non-reducing ends for the beta amylase to split (fig 3.) (Keusch 2003). Prior to germination there is no amylase detected in Barley, a trace was found after 24 hours germination, but after that it was found to increase rapidly (MacGregor 1978). figure 3. www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/nat_Fak_IV/Organische_Chemie/Didaktik/Keusch/Grafik/sucrose.gifimgrefurl The optimal temperature and pH for ÃŽÂ ±-amylase extracted from barley is well studied. Fox et al (2003) state an optimal temperature of 65Â °C and a pH of 5.5. ORourke (2002) gives optimal values of 67Â °C and pH 5.2 (table 3) while lower temperature values of 55Â °C for optimum activity of alpha amylase are given in other papers (Al-Bar 2009 and MacGregor 1978). The first two papers are written from an industrial and brewing viewpoint whereas the latter are written from a pure scientific evaluation of the characteristics of barley, this may have some bearing on the different temperatures cited keeping in mind that 60Â °C is the temperature used in mashing. The optimal temperature for amylase activity differs for different sources, Azuki beans , finger millet and wheat have optimum temperatures of 70Â °C, 45Â °C and 55Â °C respectively (Al-Bar 2009). In mammals the temp ph of the body fluids are kept constant at homeostatic condition. If the body temp ph varies from the optimum body temp ph, the enzymes activity decreases and the cellular respiration process which produces ATP energy cell mover would be affected in the body. Less ATP energy the body cells cannot perform the work which they need. The results of the present experiment did not comply with these expected results. From the literature the theory was that Amylase activity would increase with increasing temperature until a maximum level would be reached around 55Â °C and there after it would decrease as it was denatured at higher temperatures, ultimately showing no activity at 80Â °C. Likewise the effect of pH was anticipated to find increasing amylase activity with inc reased pH level to optimal between 5-6 and a decrease reaching neutral pH. While the average results were basically compliant there was a great variation in individual group results. Amylases are important across the spectrum of living organisms; they are required for the breakdown of carbohydrates, which is one of the four essential food groups and the main source of energy to living cells. Amylases are enzymes that increase the activity of a reaction without being consumed in the reaction. The reaction they are involved in is hydrolysis of carbohydrate which is the cleaving of bonds and the addition of water (Hogg 2005). Two main forms exist, alpha amylase and beta amylase, both hydrolyse carbohydrates but in different way. Alpha amylase is the faster acting as it can act on any part of the carbohydrate chain but beta amylase can only act on the non reducing ends which are produced in increasing amounts after the activity of alpha amylase. In plants amylases are largely involved in the germination of seed; temperature may be the trigger for onset of this process. In animals amylases are found in association with the digestive system, ptyalin in the mouth and fr om the pancreas. The amylase enzymes hydrolysis the disaccharides sugar and maltose into monosaccharides glucose galactose which are the smaller molecules of starch that are suitable for absorption in the small intestine for ultimate body use. As an enzyme it binds the substrates together, promotes the hydrolysis and frees the products (fig 4.), and if denatured at high temperatures this cannot happen Figure 4. http://kvhs.nbed.nb.ca/gallant/biology/biology.html From the results obtained and the discussion hitherto the indications are that the results of the present experiment are in error. The anticipated optimal temperature and pH based on previous experiments were Temperature 55Â °C and pH 5. The optimal results from the present experiment were 22Â °C and pH 6.4. This is a well practiced experiment with well recognised results. looking at the results where some conform to the expected and others have results that are un expected it is most likely that the deviation is due to human error, as in not mixing solutions correctly, not maintaining the test tubes at a constant temperature, mixing up samples and not monitoring the time of reaction correctly. The observation of colour changes is also highly subjective, the precise time of change being difficult to detect. Improvements could include using: a spectrophotometer to measure change of amount of starch remaining and then it must be blanked correctly before use. shaking equipment to ensure correct mixing using the same amylase as preparation by different groups might not have been adequate Concentration of substrate, exactness of measurement. Lack of closer attention by the operator can lead to error. Reaction rates, solutions and indicator need to be observed or calculated correctly to avoid errors. In conclusion, to improve on the experiment in future, proper attention and observation is very important.

Mental Health issues in Adults Essay

Mental health is defined in Healthy People 2020 as encompassing the ability to engage in productive activities and fulfilling relationships with other people, to adapt to change and to cope with adversity (USDHHS, 2010). In the United States nearly 57.7 Million adults (18 years and above) suffer from a mental health disorder in a given year and 6% of the population suffers from a serious mental illness (NIMH, 2010). The purpose of this paper is to look into the perspective of how best one can advocate for mental health disorder as a population health issue through various strategies including policy change. Population Health Issue and Population Affected Mental health disorders have no boundaries and affect all people without regard to gender, race or age. They are the leading cause of disability in North America (WHO, 2008b). Despite the staggering number of people with mental health disorders, only 25% obtain help in any part of the health care system, while the majority receives no specialty mental health care. It is unrealistic to have a goal of â€Å"decreasing the prevalence of mental illness† because mental illness by its nature is a complex bio psychosocial disorder and any stressful event in life may be the cause of mental health problem and everyone is susceptible to it. According to Byers et al. the number of people age 55 and above suffering from mood or anxiety disorders has been increasing for the last two decades and it has a trend of doubling itself every five years. This alarming trend will soon become a public health crisis as a large number of â€Å"baby boomer† generation ages. The increasing number of returning veterans is also another dimension to this crisis. A study conducted by RAND Corporation found that nearly twenty percent of servicemen and women returning from recent wars have some form of mental health condition (RAND, 2008). The estimated societal costs for the veterans based on prevalence and two years of treatment is estimated between $4.0 to 6.2 million. Advocacy Programs Researched in This Area The impact of mental illness on overall health and productivity in the US is often under recognized. There are many reasons for this under recognition; mainly the misunderstanding of the illness itself, lack of resources, stigma, or lack of social support can be cited. The World Health Organization (WHO) in recognition of the need for adequate resources launched a mental health initiative called Mental Health Global Action Program (mhGAP) to raise awareness and address a variety unmet needs. Other than WHO, consumer advocacy groups such as the National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (NAMI) deserve the credit for the advances made in the treatment of mental illness. The Paul Wellstone and Pete Domenici Mental Health Act otherwise known as the Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act (MHPAEA) was signed into law in 2008. The main goal of this Act is to eliminate unequal health treatment practice that has kept individuals from seeking mental health care for a long time. The way this law works it that it does not force group health plans to cover mental health benefits, however when plans cover mental health, it requires that they provide full and equal benefit in a way that is no more restrictive than all other medical and surgical procedures covered by the plan. Effective Attributes of the Programs MHPAEA has had quite an impact on the population since it went in effect in 2010. For starter, the statute does not require for employers to buy mental health benefits and employers with less than 50 employees are exempt of this statute. The second important point is that MHPAEA stipulates that any State law that provides greater protections than MHPAEA may continue to remain in effect. The last stipulation is great because it stops the Federal law (MHPAEA) from overriding a State law assuming that it protects its constituents better. Unfortunately some employers have taken MHPAEA as an excuse to drop mental health benefits in its entirety. The Screen Writers Guild was the first employer to announce its decision to drop mental health coverage for its 12000 employees. Some employers followed suit citing rising cost of insurance and burden on employers. NAMI argues cutting mental health benefits has higher cost to employers. According to NAMI most mental illnesses are highly treatable. For example, the most common mental illness in the United States is depression. The prevalence of depression is estimated to be 1 in 10 individuals of which 75% do not get the diagnosis nor the treatment. 72% are estimated to be in the workforce. NAMI estimates the indirect loss to employers amounts to 79 billion per year out of which 63 billion reflect loss of productivity due to mental illness. Mental illness causes more days of work loss and work impairement than chronic conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, asthma, arthritis, back pain and heart disease (NAMI, 2012). NAMI also claims that within two weeks of treatment 70 to 90% of individuals with depressions see a significant reduction of symptoms with and improved quality of life therefore it would be wise for employers to provide employees mental health coverage than incur costs for absenteeism. Health Advocacy Plan and Objectives for the Policy Implemented The very first step of making a health advocacy plan is to review and understand the existing health plans and be able to establish how they impact on the patients, health care providers and other stakeholders like insurers and the leaders (Jonas & Kovner, 2011). The next step is to establish the pros and cons of having such health plans (Jonas & Kovner, 2011). This would then influence a particular advocacy plan and the objectives of the policy. The objectives should take into account the prime position played by politicians in policy change (Alberta Heath Services, 2009). To effectively advocate for mental health, one needs to understand what is actually available. The facts are as follows: The US Department of Health and Human Services estimates that 47 Million of Americans are uninsured and out of this number 25% of them suffer from mental health or substance abuse disorder or a combination of the two. 1/3 of insured individuals have no coverage of both including outpatient therapy visits and inpatient crisis intervention. Then there is MHPAEA that exempts small groups therefore individuals insured under small group market may not have mental health coverage (unless the employer chose to provide one). The HHS estimates that about 95 percent of those with small group market coverage have substance abuse and mental health benefits (HHS, 2012). Communication to Various Stakeholders Communication in the public health sector can be done in several forms including through the mass media, seminars, schools, and churches and depending on the situation, place and target group, several methods can be used including posters, speeches, skits and literature among others. As a policy oriented approach, it divides the target audience into primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary target addresses the organizations, groups and people with the power to effect change. The secondary target is represented by those who can be mobilized to participate in the implementation. The tertiary target is the general public (Alberta Heath Services, 2009). In effect, therefore, mass media as means of advocacy help the organizations and the general public to make better health choices. The approach of communication NAMI took is to involve all three targets. The tertiary target i.e. the general public has also been the focus of NAMI especially because of the link between mental illness and substance abuse. Efforts to raise awareness are underway especially in the DC metro area where frequent walks organized by NAMI are happening. The aim of NAMI walks is to raise awareness of mental health and well-being in communities and to improve the general understanding of the illness, and reduce the misunderstandings and stigma associated with it. NAMI educates and trains practitioners and patients of the different pathways to recovery. Health practitioners, especially nurses get a larger opportunity to educate about the disease in their area of practice and also be the voices for the patients who do not have a voice. Data and Evidence to Substantiate Proposed Need The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), which is commonly referred to as the ObamaCare, has become regarded as a historical law ever since it was signed into the law in March 23rd, 2010 by President Obama (American Public Health Association, 2013). ACA built on the structures of MHPAEA to expand coverage of mental health and substance use disorder for more than 62 million Americans in the following three ways: 1.Essential Health Benefits Mental health and substance use disorders will be part of all individual and small group market â€Å"non-grandfathered† insurance plans (essential health benefits) effective January 1st 2014. â€Å"non-grandfathered† means plans that were not in existence before ACA was signed into law. This statute ensures that at least 5.1 million individuals (3.9 million currently covered in the individual market and 1.2 covered in small group plans) and will gain either mental health or substance use disorder coverage or both. 2.Parity in the Individual and Small Group Markets Under the ACA and the MHPAEA 7.1 million Americans currently covered in the individual market who currently have some mental health and substance use disorder benefits will have access to coverage of Essential Health Benefits comparable to their general and surgical medical coverage. 3.Increasing Access to Quality Health Care Finally, the ACA will expand essential health benefits insurance coverage to an estimated 27 million uninsured Americans through access to insurance market places and CMS. The essential Health Benefits packages includes mental health services In total, the Affordable Care Act will expand federal parity protection to at least 62 million Americans. Application of Attributes of Effective Advocacy Programs to Proposed Campaign Among many other health-care policies that have proved to be workable, Obamacare turned out to have adequate advantages that can be borrowed and applied in this campaign. Obamacare health policy emphasizes on quality health-care and not quantity. For instance, doctors and other health-care professionals are paid according to the quality of health service they provide (Obama Care Facts, 2013). Obamacare also highlights the importance of non-discrimination in the provision of health services across the entire population, thus ensuring uniformity in its application. One yet another vital attribute that is also of importance is the reduction of costs for preventive health-care options. This ensures that options explored by the general public are not exploitative and overburdening to them (Obama Care Facts, 2013). Obamacare has also been to a greater degree people-driven, as the citizenry have been effective in pushing their political leaders to support the health plan (Obama Care Facts, 2013). It does not take rocket science to know that mental health and substance abuse disorder patients would benefit tremendously from such a program. Impact of Existing Laws or Regulations The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act legislation contained several health reforms provisions that were already being rooted for by a number of health stakeholders including American Public Health Association (APHA) and other population health experts (APHA, 2013). Following the enactment of the Affordable Care Act, there has been a shift from the focus on treatment of the sick to the focus on promoting people’s health (APHA, 2013). The ACA and HP2020 have a common goal which is to create social and physical environments that promote health and wellness in all populations. The ACA will be effective in January 2014, so far the program looks very promising and the statute have been found to have very little impact on the employer-based insurance with a projected slight increase (2.7% only), especially with regard to the high end employers. However, there appears to be a decrease for the low end employers (Blumberg et al., 2012) contrary to what the critics of ACA are speculating. Analysis of Methods Used to Influence Policy Makers According to Milstead (2013), for nurses to succeed in advocating for the enactment of new and better policies, it is imperative that they strike a working relationship with the government agencies, officers as well as with the elected officials. This way the nurses have the chance to be recognized as having what it takes to effect policies concerning population health issues, and this will thus be included in making decisions concerning population health matters (Milstead, 2013). Establishing such a cordial relationship would be instrumental in helping both parties, namely the nurses and the policy makers to be able to review existing health policies and enact better campaigns (Milstead, 2013). Other than striking a rapport with the political leaders, the nurses should also strive to enhance their understanding of the policy-making process through the nursing internships that were already put in place by the nursing organizations (Milstead, 2013). Anticipated Obstacles and Strategies According to the online article by Alberta Health Services (2009), several challenges abound when it comes to advocating for population health. The leading and most obvious problem lies in the main aim of advocacy, which is to effect legislations that would then lead to changes in policies. This is the case since the policy change is highly a political issue whose process results in public tensions (Alberta Health Services, 2009). Almost all legislative changes and implementations are funded by the public resources, and, therefore, any suggested changes are often contested (Alberta Health Services, 2009). Further still, these changes often have economic consequences as well. As a result, more often than not population health advocates together with the like-minded politicians and members of the public of good will find themselves at the receiving end on the part of various interest groups who wish to maintain the status quo (Alberta Health Services, 2009). Obamacare, which seeks to provide preventive services also covered in insurance plans and to ascertain that people with insurance covers are not dropped while sick, has for instance, faced several obstacles mainly from the stakeholders in the insurance industry (Obama Care Facts, 2013). Anybody who wishes to conduct a successful advocacy for mental health and substance abuse disorders must be prepared to deal with all these obstacles, especially given that most insurance companies would be less willing to cover against mental health. View as multi-pages

Comparative Criminal Justice Systems

In Phillip L. Reichel’s book Criminal Justice systems 6th edition Phillip Reichel uses the historical, political and descriptive approaches to compare criminal justice systems, although it is the institution and actors strategy that Lynch emphasizes. Legal systems and legal traditions have been studied and compared since the early 18th century. We will be discussing why criminal justice systems are studied and evaluating and comparing how the historical, political and descriptive approaches are used to study today’s criminal justice systems.In reference to why we study other justice systems although a society cannot replace their legal system completely with that of another country’s legal system it is important that we use comparative studies, as there are both provincial and universal benefits. Comparing how other criminal justice systems operate provides a point of contrast for a country’s own justice system also enabling them to analyse and to better u nderstand their legal system in order to help improve the way in which their system operates.As to the universal benefits comparative studies help nations to better understand differences and similarities in other nation’s justice systems to help them cooperate and work together to combat international crime. Although law enforcement agencies have worked together for centuries with the first extradition agreement between America and Great Britain being made in 1794. One may suggest that it is essential that criminal justice systems work more closely today than ever before as organised crime has developed more on an international scale. Countries can co-operate together on both a bilateral and multinational basis.The latter being where more than two countries work together for example the EU and the former being where two countries work together usually neighbours for example America and Canada. As with all three approaches the primary goal is to convey information. With the h istorical approach information studied is used to tell us what mistakes and successes have already occurred and what earlier experiences tell us about the present. Although perhaps the most important benefit gained from using the historical approach is how knowledge of the past prepare us for the future?As the criminal justice system and judiciary changes over time and by not having an understanding of the past one may suggest it would be difficult to prepare for the future. Over the years there have been many changes in criminal justice systems around the world and the historical approach has helped legal systems learn from past mistakes and successes in their penitentiary system’s, rehabilitation processes, judiciary, case law and other areas such as investigative techniques and the way in which we gather evidence.As mentioned some of the benefits of using an historical approach is how knowledge of the past can help prepare us for the future and what we can learn from our m istakes and successes. Improving conviction rates and decreasing wrongful convictions has always been a goal sought by criminal justice systems globally. The introduction of DNA had a huge impact on law enforcement agencies around the world and improved the way they investigated crimes, gathered evidence, prosecuted, solved crimes, decrease wrongful convictions and helped in exonerating people who had already been wrongfully convicted people.In 2002 the innocence project was set up in the United States and as of December 2011, 307 were exonerated of wrongful convictions by the use of DNA testing since 1989, 17 of whom had been sentenced to death. The first use of DNA was in England in Leicester when police asked Dr. Alec J. Jeffery’s in 1986 to help identify a suspect involved in two rape-murders. The tests actually cleared the original suspect and police then took several hundred DNA samples from males in the local area which led to Robert Melias being the first person being convicted with the use of DNA in 1987.After this case America began using DNA evidence and Tommy Lee Andrew was the first person to be convicted in the United States in November 1987 also for rape. Another example of the historical approach is Gustave de Beaumont’s and Alex de Tocquellive’s report of the American penitentiary structure in 1831 and 1832 and the French’s prison system. They criticised the French penitentiary system as it was costly to the treasury, was low on discipline and there was a high rate of inmates being sent back to prison.The American system however showed a profit as inmates were made to work during the day and there was a high level of discipline as inmates were kept in isolation at night. Having the system run this way not only showed a profit but also provided a low rate of recommittals. Gustave de Beaumont and Alex de Tocquellive’s compared the American penitentiary system with not only their own French system but also the p enitentiary system of Switzerland. Their report suggested ways to try and help their system by incorporating the American system and is an example of how we can learn from earlier mistakes and successes.As discussed one of the reasons we compare legal systems is in order for countries to work together to combat crime they must understand the differences and similarities in how their legal systems operate. Although for a country to work with another country it is also important to understand each other’s political system. The political approach is of importance when comparing legal systems as politics not only has an effect on a nation’s justice system but also effects interaction among nations.An example of how politics has effected both a nation’s justice system and interaction among nations is the case of Yvonne Fletcher. On the 17th April 1984 Yvonne Fletcher a Police officer was on duty during a protest outside the Libyan embassy. Without warning from one of the windows of the embassy gunfire was discharged at the protesters. Eleven people were injured including Fletcher who was fatally wounded after being hit in the stomach. Yvonne Fletcher died one hour later after being taken to Westminster hospital.The shooting resulted in MI5 being called and armed police surrounding the Libyan embassy for eleven days in one of the longest police sieges in London’s history. Britain at the time had diplomatic relations with Libra which meant they needed permission from the Libyan government to enter their embassy as under International law an embassy is a diplomatic premise. Although police were aware of this they still wanted to enter the Libyan embassy but at least needed authorization from the British prime minster, then Margaret Thatcher.As Margaret Thatcher was not in the country the responsibility was Douglas Herd’s then Home secretary to negotiate permission from the Libyan government to enter their embassy or to ignore Interna tional law and enter the embassy without their permission. The leader of the Libyan government then Gaddafi not only decided to not give consent to enter the Libyan embassy but declared that their embassy was under attack and in turn Libyan soldier’s surrounded the British embassy in Libya. With the risk to employees of the British embassy being harmed and diplomaticimmunity under International law the British government allowed the embassy staff to leave the building and escorted them to the airport to return to Libya. As a result of the embassy siege and Yvonne Fletcher the United Kingdom ended all diplomatic relations with Libya and in 1987 passed the diplomatic and consular premises act. The Diplomatic and consular premises act 1987 allows the UK government to determine which land is considered to be a diplomatic or consular premise and has been used once when the Cambodian embassy was occupied by squatters.Another example of how politics has effected a nation’s ju stice system is the war on Iraq. In 2003 George Bush declared war on Iraq and within a month America had declared victory. Although the American army had taken control there was widespread looting and riots and the need for a new police force was required. New York City’s former police commissioner Bernard Kerik was given the task to not only reform the police but to improve other areas such as: the border controls and customs.Bernard Kerik decided that the best way to do this was to retrain the Iraqi police force from everything from human rights to the use of fire arms. The training was out sourced to an American consulting firm called Dyn Corp International, this is an example of how a political system can influence a nation’s police force. Today there are 42,000 members of the Iraqi police all of which have completed the training provided by DynCorp International with more than 5,700 also completing specialized training from the Italian police and NATO.Although whe n comparing legal systems Lynch uses the historical and political approaches it is the descriptive approach and in particular the institution and actors strategy that Lynch emphasizes on for his book. In order for us to evaluate and compare each other’s legal system’s we first need to know how a system is supposed to operate. The descriptive approach gives as a description of how a country’s legal system is supposed to operate. It is by using the descriptive approach that we can compare similarities and differences between legal systems.The descriptive approach use’s two strategies the functions and procedures strategy and the institution and actors strategy. The main difference between the functions and procedures and institutions and actors strategy is that the institutions and actors strategy enables us to compare a large number of legal systems. It is because of this that Lynch emphasizes this strategy. The functions and procedures strategy can help u s group and compare countries based on their similarities as Lynch argues that all countries require that similar jobs be done or thou there may be more differences between the people doing the job then the jobs themselves.The functions and procedures strategy is not as helpful when comparing differences between legal systems. For example America, France and China have procedures for arrest and gathering evidence or trying to protect suspects against prolonged pre-trial detention. The functions and procedures strategy can be used to group such countries and compare similarities for example America, France and China all have time limits on how long a suspect should be held without charge. However when comparing a large number of legal systems on how they try to protect suspects against prolonged pre-trial detention we may find more differences.The institution’s and actors strategies approach helps us more when there are more differences between legal systems. For example when comparing how countries protect suspects against prolonged pre-trial detention. If there are a number of differences the institution and actors strategy compares systems based on their institutions such as their courts and corrections thus enabling to compare more countries and both similarities as well as more differences. The Historical, Political and Descriptive approaches each provide ways to compare criminal justice systems and each have their own benefits.The Historical approach tells us how knowledge of the past can help us prepare for the future and helps us learn from past mistakes and successes. The Political approach tells us how politics can affect a nation’s justice system as well as interaction among other nations. The descriptive approach (functions and procedures/institution and actors strategies) explains how a nation’s justice system is supposed to operate, the main components of a justice system and helps us compare a large number of different justic e systems.We compare legal systems not only for the provincial benefits but also to improve multinational cooperation to help combat international crime. Organized crime has increased over the years and criminals work more closely with criminals from other nations, as Thomas Friedman a New York columnist writes in his book â€Å"The world is flat†. Therefore it is equally important if not more important that criminal justice systems work together and understand each other’s legal systems and traditions.

Essay about Biography f Rene Descartes - 864 Words

Rene Descartes was a brilliant man who was born on March 31st, 1596. He was born in a small town in the South of France, named La Haye. Rene Descartes lived from 1596-1650. He was the son of an intellectual councilor in Parliament, named Joachim Descartes. His mother, Jeanne Brochard, died when he was only 1 years old. Rene Descartes was 8 years old when he attended the Jesuit College of Henry VI in La Fleche. Rene studied science, grammar, mathematics and literature which led him to become a famous Mathematician. He later left La Fleche in 1614 to study civil and cannon law at Poitiers. In 1616, Rene Descartes received his Bachelors Degree and licensed degree in Law. In 1618, Descartes spent some time in the military where he was†¦show more content†¦The second meditation brings the primary truth in the â€Å"cogito, ergo sum† or â€Å"I think,therefore I am†. Descartes saw that the result is known only from the fact that it is â€Å"clearly and distinctly† perceived by the mind. Descartes then unfolds the results of clear and distinct perception in meditations three to six, and he repeats and extends these results in pr inciples one and two. Descartes famously calls the senses into doubt in the first meditation. He affirms in meditation six that the senses are not meant to provide knowledge of the â€Å"essential nature† of external objects. In his position, the meditations differ from that in the rules, in that he allowed that some â€Å"simple natures† with important things can and should be considered through the images of the senses in the meditations. He held that the purpose of matter could be used and assigned for ideas, independently of any sensory image to that extent. His opinion allowed him to agree with the â€Å"platonic tradition† in philosophy, which uses sensory knowledge and held things that the known by the intellect have a higher reality than the object of the senses. Descartes attitude toward the senses in his mature period was not one of total loss. Descartes assigned two roles to the senses in the understanding of human knowledge. First he attempted to pro ve that the senses are usually adequate for detecting benefits andShow MoreRelated Philosophy in Mathematics Essay3045 Words   |  13 Pagestechnology. Rene Descartes (1596-1650), G. W. Leibniz (1646-1716), and Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) (Ebersole, S. (#5)) are the three philosophers. Though all three of these philosophers contributed their own reviews on the subject of mathematical philosophy, they all saw the world and thus it‘s mechanical contributions â€Å"as being controlled by mathematical principles.† (Ebersole, S.). 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Viets, University of Vermont Roger Volkema, American University William Walker, University of Houston Ian Walsh, Boston College Charles F. Warren, Salem State College Christa Washington, Saint Augustine’s College Jim Westerman, Appalachian State University William J. White, Northwestern University David Whitlock, Southwest Baptist University Dan Wiljanen, Grand Valley State UniversityRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pagesor she is a U.S. citizen. If so, can you be absolutely sure that if somebody is not a U.S. citizen, then he or she is not the governor of Alaska? ────18 Is the following conditional making a true statement about the real world? If President John F. Kennedy was born in Bangladesh, then he was born in Asia. Yes, it is true, and it is true even though both the if-part and the then-part are false. There’s a big lesson with that example: The truth of a conditional does not require the truth of