Mortgage and Housing Act in the U.S

Introduction It is pointed out that, â€Å"in its preamble to the 1949 Housing Act, Congress declared its goal of ‘a decent home in a suitable living environment for every American family’† (Schwartz 1).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Mortgage and Housing Act in the U.S specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the course of over the last six decades, beginning from the time this legislation was passed, the U.S Federal Government has engaged in assisting to finance the construction as well as rehabilitation of over five million housing units for the families that have a low income, and has also offered rental vouchers to almost two million more families. However, the housing problems in the United States remain severe. For instance, it is reported that in the year 2005, over forty two million families stayed in physically deficient housing, with more than thirty percent of their incomes be ing spent on housing and even some families were homeless (Schwartz 1). Since housing is very costly, its development as well as acquisition mostly relies on borrowed funds. It is reported that â€Å"housing construction, acquisition of existing rental buildings, and the purchase of single-family homes all rely on debt† (Schwartz 51). It is also reported that in the year 2009, the residential mortgages were more than eleven trillion dollars, and this was more than fifty percent of the whole federal government debt (Schwartz 51). Much has been written on the impacts of the US mortgage crisis on the global economy. Financial experts have warned that the impacts of the US housing and financial crises might persist if the necessary policies are not implemented (Kolb 6). As a result, adjustments in the financial institutions have been inevitable. Most mortgage lenders have tightened their lending rates to survive in the changing markets (Bardhan 2). Several financial experts belie ve that the effects of the current US mortgage crisis are far much worse than stated by the government economists.Advertising Looking for research paper on common law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Objectives of the Study The main purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of the mortgage and Housing Act in the United States of America. In this study, I sought to identify how the Housing Act has achieved its intended objectives. Moreover, my investigation sought to find out how the federal housing program has survived, despite the enormous economic challenges (Krugman 15). Another objective of the study was to assess the level of the current housing crisis in the US. In this regard, a number of the affected sectors were looked at and an evaluation of how the mortgage markets have behaved all through the recession was carried out. Last but not least, the study also sought to analyze the magnitude of the effects of th e housing crisis on the annual revenue collected by the state and the local governments. The research questions for the study included: To what extent have the objectives of the Housing Act in the U.S been met? How have mortgage markets behaved all through the recession (2007- 2008)? What are the effects of housing and financial crises on the government, organizations and households? Why I was Interested in Conducting this Study The Housing Act in the U.S. was enacted with an intention of ensuring that every American has a decent home in a proper living environment. This Act was intended to help ensure that proper housing is affordable to all Americans. However, the housing and financial crises that occurred starting from the year 2007 made this goal to be hard to achieve. The crises had some negative effects on households, organizations and the government. This study sought to understand these effects and the level to which the objectives of the Housing Act have been achieved. Th is study is very important because understanding these effects, and how effective the Housing Act has been, will go a long way in helping to come up with appropriate policies.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Mortgage and Housing Act in the U.S specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Implementation of such policies will serve to prevent the same effects from being felt in the future, and to ensure the objectives of the Housing Act are achieved to the highest level possible. Literature Review It is reported that before the commencement of â€Å"the Great Depression† in the year 1929; funding for buying â€Å"owner-occupied housing was in short supply and expensive†(Schwartz 51). Mortgages usually became due after a period of between two to eleven years, depending on the kind of the lender, â€Å"requiring repayment or re-financing† (Schwartz 51). A large number of lenders had the willingness to engage in covering less than sixty percent of the value of the property, calling for a larger number of borrowers to get â€Å"the second and third mortgages†(Schwartz 51). The difficulty of funding home purchases limited homeownership to the people who were richer and assisted in making rental housing to be the main type of tenure (Schwartz 51). It is reported that the â€Å"Great Depression† affected the homeowners as well as home ownership negatively to a large extent (Schwartz 51). Unemployment became prevalent and several homeowners could not make their monthly payments for the mortgage any longer. This prompted foreclosure on an immense scale. In the course of the year 1933, over fifty percent of the entire home mortgages â€Å"were defaulted and more than 1,000 mortgages were foreclosed every day† (Schwartz 51). Those homeowners who were able to remain current on their mortgage payments evaded foreclosure (Schwartz 1). However, a large number of them were forced to engage in selling their homes when the mortgages they had come due.Advertising Looking for research paper on common law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is reported that â€Å"cash-starved banks, beleaguered by customers withdrawing their deposits, became increasingly reluctant to roll over their mortgages and instead demanded that the borrower pay back the principal in full† (Schwartz 52). In addition, during that time, the total mortgage debt of a homeowner could be more than the actual value of the house and this could leave this person in debt even after the house being sold. This is a problem that appeared again seven and a half decades later, when there was collapsing of the recent housing bubble that caused about twenty percent of the homeowners â€Å"to owe more on their mortgage than their homes were worth† (Schwartz 52) (See Appendix 1). Following increased mortgage closure and collapsing of the whole housing industry, the federal government’s response was to take various measures that completely changed the U.S’s â€Å"housing finance system† and assisted in propelling homeownership à ¢â‚¬Å"within reach of a majority of its households† (Schwartz 52). Such institutions and programs made it possible to have a considerable increase in the nation’s homeownership beginning from the 1940s until the 1960s; setting up a fresh and steady â€Å"system for housing finance† which remained concrete for over four decades (Schwartz 52). The United States’ housing and financial sectors contribute significantly to the growth of the country’s economy. In the early 1990s, the US government took an initiative of enabling more low- income earners to own homes (Marshall 23). The government authorized all the housing stakeholders to reduce their mortgage requirements. In the year 1992, the US government, through Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, acquired loans from mortgage banks and mortgage brokers. Following this move, more secondary mortgage markets were created (Marshall 34). At that time, regulations required GSEs to allocate 30 % of all the mortgages purchased as affordable housing loans. However, this requirement was not adhered to and in the year 2007, financial experts noted that the percentage had risen to 55% (Marshall 45). In the years 2007 and 2008, the boom in the housing sector came to an end following the onset of global financial crisis (Francis 12). This crisis and the subsequent recession had great negative effects on the US housing and financial sectors. A dramatic increase in default rates was realized. The increase in the default rates occurred because most of the homeowners were among the worst hit individuals by the recession. Notably, most of the homeowners had no retirement accounts (Parker 67). Because of lack of retirement accounts, these individuals were left with nothing they could use to access mortgages. The affected individuals were left with no other choice but to avoid paying their loans. The crisis affected the US government, organizations, institutions, and households (Bardhan 4). Economists noted that the effects of the crisis were felt by all persons, regardless of whether or not they had participated in the growth of the housing sector (Ellis 78). As a result, most of the gains obtained prior to the recession were reversed. Methodology This research involved use of secondary data. The collection of this data involved considering the existing data. The existing data included the surveys that have been conducted by various researchers as well as the general information on mortgages and the Housing Act. The work presented by other people on the subject was examined and used in this research in order to help answer the research questions and to achieve the objectives of the study. Results and Discussion Basing on the research conducted by some researchers in the past, it was found out that, about forty percent of the people in the United States of America have experienced financial distress in the course of the recession (National Bureau of Economic Research 1). Experts point out that â€Å"spending changes provide one measure of the recession’s impact on households’ well-being† (National Bureau of Economic Research 1). In a survey conducted by the National Bureau of Economic Research, it was found that about seventy five percent of the respondents pointed out that they had reduced spending, and this was because of the economic crisis. Those that reported having engaged in reducing their spending cited various reasons for the reduction: eighty percent of them cited the need of reducing debt; seventy percent cited a decrease in the level of income; forty five percent cited a change in the status of employment; forty five percent cited a reduction in the value of their homes; and thirty five percent cited stock holdings (National Bureau of Economic Research 1). This is a clear indication that the housing and financial crises have affected the households adversely (National Bureau of Economic Research 1). In considering the effects of t he housing and financial crises on organizations, the existing data on this issue was also used. It was found out that, due to the sharp decline in the value of the â€Å"mortgage-backed† securities, the retail as well as the investment banks were compelled to â€Å"write-down† losses incurred on the securities that they held (Tiller 45). This brought about great losses in the whole banking sector in the last two quarters of the year 2007. The crisis became even more intense in March 2008 when the collapse of Bear Steams occurred. It was found out that, because the crisis made the banks to be afraid of lending money, both households and businesses were not able to borrow (Tiller 45). Therefore, the households put purchases on hold while the businesses engaged in laying-off their workers. It was also found out that, in the last quarter of the year 2008, the banking sector recorded a loss of twenty six billion dollars (Tiller 45). Moreover, the research established that the local governments were less hit by the recession as compared to the state governments. However, there is likelihood that the pressures will mount. It was found out that the local governments witnessed a smaller decline in the tax revenues as compared to the state governments. According to the available information, â€Å"even as national income home prices fell by 27 percent between the end of June 2006 and the end of 2010, property tax collection increased by 31 percent during the same period, reflecting delayed response to home price changes and new tax measures† (Congressional Budget Office 1). However, the declining housing prices will, sooner or later, feed into the local government tax revenues. The research findings indicated that, both the local and state governments reacted in response to the fiscal pressures by bringing down the level of their expenditure by almost 3% in real terms, in the cause of 2008/2009 fiscal year. Moreover, the local governments engaged i n cutting their labor force by approximately two percent within the period between December 2007 and December 2010 (Congressional Budget Office 1). It was also found out that the local government raised the level of some of the taxes, property taxes included, and made their tax base to be wider. This assisted in supporting collection of tax in the initial stages of the crisis (Congressional Budget Office 1). The bursting of the housing bubble began in the year 2006 and there was accelerating of the decline in 2007 and 2008 (Baker 73; Lybeck 120) (see Appendix). The housing prices ceased to go up in the year 2006.These prices then began to go down in 2007 and have, up to now, dropped by approximately 25% from the highest point (Moseley 1). The price reduction implied that homeowners could not be able to refinance any more, where there was resetting of their rates of mortgage This made the delinquencies as well as mortgage defaults to escalate, mainly ‘†among subprime borr owers† (Moseley 1). Beginning from the month of January 2006 up to August 2008, the proportion of mortgages in foreclosure rose by three times, â€Å"and the percentage of mortgages in foreclosure or at least thirty days delinquent more than doubled, from 4.5 percent to 10 percent† (Moseley 1). These rates are found to be the highest beginning from the time of the Great Depression. The peak of the rate of delinquency that occurred previously was 6.8% in the year 1984 and also in the year 2002 (Moseley 1). It has been projected that the worst has not yet happened. The hope that the American people have been having of owning their own homes is turning out to prove to be unrealizable. Conclusion The enactment of the Housing Act in the U.S. was undertaken with an aim of making sure that each and every American citizen has a decent home in a suitable environment. This Act aimed at ensuring that proper housing is affordable to all Americans. However, the housing and financial crises that occurred starting from the year 2007 made this goal hard to achieve. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the mortgage and Housing Act in the United States. This research sought to identify how the Housing Act has achieved its objectives. In achieving the objectives of this research and answering the research questions; the available literature on the topic was reviewed and secondary data was analyzed. It was established that, following the housing and financial crises, a considerable number of households reduced their spending. This was due to various reasons, which include; need of reducing debt, reduction in the income level, change in the employment status, reduction in the value of homes, and stock holdings. It was also found out that, such organizations as banks made big losses. Moreover, both the local and state governments experienced a decrease in the tax revenues. They responded by increasing other taxes, such as property taxes. The housing and financial crises prevented the Housing Act objectives from being achieved to a considerable level. These crises have made it hard for the households to obtain funds from banks. A considerable number of people are struggling to survive and cannot be able to afford proper housing. Policies need to be put in place to ensure these effects brought in by these crises are overcome and also to ensure that, the same cannot happen again in the future in order for all of the Housing Act objectives to be achieved to the highest level possible. Works Cited Baker, Dean. â€Å"The housing bubble and the financial crisis†. Real-world Economics Review, 1.46 (2008):73 – 81. Print. Bardhan, Ashok. â€Å"Housing and financial crisis in the U.S: cause or symptom†. Vikalpa, 32.3 (2009): 1- 7. Print. Congressional Budget Office, 2010. Fiscal Stress Faced by Local Governments. Washington: Congressional Budget Office. Print. Ellis, Luci. The housing meltdown Why did it happ en in the United States? Basel, Switzerland: Bank for International Settlements, 2008. Print. Francis, Andrea. Affordable housing: the continuing search for solutions : proceedings of the National Housing Trust’s 20th anniversary housing symposium. Kingston, Jamaica : Planning Research Dept., National Housing Trust, 1996. Print. Kolb, Robert W.. The financial crisis of our time. New York: Oxford University Press,2011. Print. Krugman, Paul R.. The return of depression economics and the crisis of 2008. New York: W.W. Norton, 2009. Print. Lybeck, Johan A.. A global history of the financial crash of 2007-2010. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Print. Marshall, John. The financial crisis in the US: key events, causes, and responses. London: House of Commons Library, 2009. Print. Moseley, Fred. The U.S. economic crisis: causes and solutions, April 2009. Web. National Bureau of Economic Research, The effect of economic crisis on American households, 2012. Web. Parker, John. Turmoil in U.S. credit markets recent actions regarding government sponsored entities, investment banks, and other financial institutions : hearing before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, One Hundred Tenth Congress, second session. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2010. Print. Schwartz, F. Alex. Housing Policy in the United States. Oxford: Taylor Francis, 2012. Print. Tiller, Bo. The subprime crisis and the effects on the U.S banking industry, 2011. Web. Appendix Source: Tiller, Bo. The subprime crisis and the effects on the U.S banking industry, 2011. This research paper on Mortgage and Housing Act in the U.S was written and submitted by user Carissa E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Black Mesa

Black Mesa in Muddy Water â€Å"Somewhere far away from us, people have no understanding that their demand for cheap electricity, air conditioning and lights 24 hours a day have contributed to the imbalance of this very delicate place (Reilly 1).† Peabody Coal Company has pumped water from beneath the Hopi and Navajo reservation for almost thirty-five years. In the beginning of the 1960’s Peabody signed leases with the Hopi and Navajo tribes that gave permission to the coal company to search and mine coal deposits on over 100 square miles of the Black Mesa. The water is then mixed with pulverized coal into a slurry line that transports the coal 273 miles to Laughlin, Nevada. Currently, slurry lines are rarely used; much more astonishing is that the slurry line is being employed in one of the driest regions on Earth. Regardless of what the company and tribal leaders maintain, many natives insist that the usage of the water from the Black Mesa has â€Å"thrown the aquifer out of balance, be cause natural discharges and well withdrawals exceed any recharge (Dougherty 2).† The environmental justice movement came to fruition as a synergy between economic development, social justice and environmental protection, and calls for the rectification of conditions unequally imposed on minority groups (Switzer 40). Black Mesa Trust was a Native American protectionist group founded to â€Å"safeguard, preserve and honor the land and water of Black Mesa (blackmesatrust.org/).† This group was created in 1999, with the specific goal to address the harsh impacts of Peabody Coal Company’s water extraction from the Navajo aquifer on Hopi and Navajo culture along the Black Mesa. The group desires to be the voice of the people that have been silenced for almost thirty years in the name of revenue, and finally challenge the company’s mining activities and water usage before more of the wells, washes and ancient springs run dry (http:... Free Essays on Black Mesa Free Essays on Black Mesa Black Mesa in Muddy Water â€Å"Somewhere far away from us, people have no understanding that their demand for cheap electricity, air conditioning and lights 24 hours a day have contributed to the imbalance of this very delicate place (Reilly 1).† Peabody Coal Company has pumped water from beneath the Hopi and Navajo reservation for almost thirty-five years. In the beginning of the 1960’s Peabody signed leases with the Hopi and Navajo tribes that gave permission to the coal company to search and mine coal deposits on over 100 square miles of the Black Mesa. The water is then mixed with pulverized coal into a slurry line that transports the coal 273 miles to Laughlin, Nevada. Currently, slurry lines are rarely used; much more astonishing is that the slurry line is being employed in one of the driest regions on Earth. Regardless of what the company and tribal leaders maintain, many natives insist that the usage of the water from the Black Mesa has â€Å"thrown the aquifer out of balance, be cause natural discharges and well withdrawals exceed any recharge (Dougherty 2).† The environmental justice movement came to fruition as a synergy between economic development, social justice and environmental protection, and calls for the rectification of conditions unequally imposed on minority groups (Switzer 40). Black Mesa Trust was a Native American protectionist group founded to â€Å"safeguard, preserve and honor the land and water of Black Mesa (blackmesatrust.org/).† This group was created in 1999, with the specific goal to address the harsh impacts of Peabody Coal Company’s water extraction from the Navajo aquifer on Hopi and Navajo culture along the Black Mesa. The group desires to be the voice of the people that have been silenced for almost thirty years in the name of revenue, and finally challenge the company’s mining activities and water usage before more of the wells, washes and ancient springs run dry (http:...

None Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 17

None - Essay Example This is the only reason why the US has increased the use of sonar in the West Coast. The environmental groups have been very disturbed by the use of sonar and they want the US to stop disturbing the marine life and especially the Whales. The sound waves emitted during a sonar operation disturbs almost all the marine creatures, this has serious repercussions on dolphins and Whales. The dwindling of dolphins and whales is primarily because of such sonar operations carried by the US time and time again. It is high time to stop this as there are clear evidences that prove that the dwindling is all because of such sonar operations carried out by the US. The harmful noise emitted by the sonar directly affects the eardrums of the marine mammals and this in turn alters their diving habits resulting in their premature death. There are several other proofs that show that sonar operations harm the marine mammals and therefore it is high time to stop all such operations that harm marine mammals. The rapid depletion of Whales is a major cause of worry for all the people across the globe. It is our responsibility to safeguard the interest of every living organism and we have certainly failed in doing so time and time again. The Whale stock is being over exploited time and time again and the same is leading to dwindling of Whales. In the year 1931 as many as 22 nations signed the Geneva Convention to bring Whaling under control but this has not been done even to date. This treaty was modified with new protocols in the year 1938 and 1945 and the same served as a platform for International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling signed in the US in the year 1946. An International Whaling commission was established in order to safeguard the Whales. The dwindling of Whales could not have been solved with a better way than establishing a separate entity to safeguard

How Customer Service earns Customer Loyalty Thesis

How Customer Service earns Customer Loyalty - Thesis Example The study would also include a section that would address the area of primary research methodology that would be used to analyze the research question. Finally the study would also contain a section that would summarize the findings of the study and finally suggest certain plausible recommendations that would help marketers of service based organizations to formulate effective strategies that helps in build long term relationships with the organizations thus fostering customer loyalty and ensuring sustainable competitive advantage for the organization in the long run in the competitive and turbulent business environment. Table of Contents How Customer Service earns Customer Loyalty 1 Abstract 2 Chapter 1: Introduction 5 Statement of Problem and Importance of Study 6 Definition of Terms 8 Customer Loyalty 8 Brand 8 Brand Equity 8 Innovations 8 Service Mix 8 Research Questions 9 Summary 9 Chapter 2: Literature Review 10 Historical Background 10 Service Delivery and Customer Loyalty 11 Measuring Customer Satisfaction 14 Distinction between Products and Services 15 Elements of Customer Loyalty 17 Service Innovations and Customer Loyalty 18 Customer Loyalty and Competitive Advantage 20 Service Mix and Customer Loyalty 21 Customer Loyalty and Brand Image 22 Summary 24 Chapter 3: Primary Research Methodology 24 Sampling 25 Data Collection Techniques 25 Research Methodology 26 Summary 27 Chapter 4: Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations 28 Discussions 28 Conclusions 29 Recommendations 30 References 32 Chapter 1: Introduction The present age of business and consumer markets is rightly termed as the age of consumers. Business organizations in the wake of increased completion within the market are trying out new means to lure customers. It has become essential for organizations to not only attract new customer alone but to also retain the existing customers. In this event customer relationship management and consequently customer loyalty have become largely an importa nt part of the strategy formulation of business organizations. This strategy of business organizations follows from the popular thought which states that it is easier and less expensive to retain an old customer rather than acquiring a new one. Promoting customer loyalty has therefore become one of the most important elements of strategy formulation for business organizations. Customer loyalty is largely measured as an outcome of the level of customer satisfaction which is defined as â€Å"the customer’s fulfillment response to a customer experience, or some part thereof† (Buttle, 2008, p.44). Business organizations are trying out newer strategies to induce customer loyalty which includes providing loyalty cards that can be used by the customer to redeem points based on their purchases. The points can be redeemed for cash discounts or other offers which helps induce repeat purchases by the customers. Customer loyalty has gained widespread importance in the recent years with the dynamics of markets changing from a seller’s market to a buyer’s market. Promoting customer loyalty also helps an organization to get closer to its customers so as to better analyze the demands of the customers. The importance of customer loyalty can be gauged from the fact that in Europe

An Investigation into the activity of A Amylase

An Investigation into the activity of A Amylase Alpha amylase is an enzyme. It specific binds with water and starch . It hydrolyses starch and glycogen to give glucose and maltose. It acts on the alpha bonds of polysaccharides. Because of the specificity of the enzymes activity the structure of the enzyme must be precise. Any factor which will cause denaturation of the enzyme will restrict its rate of activity. Two of the most important factors effecting Alpha amylase activity are temperature and pH. The following experiment is designed to investigate the effect of different environmental temperatures and pH on the activity rate of Barley amylase. Materials and Methods As per schedule, No procedures were changed from original schedule. Results: The results are recorded as the time when colour change indicated that all the starch had been hydrolysed. A dark blue-black colour signified the presence of starch. When this colour is lost and an amber-yellow colour develops indicating that all the starch is hydrolysed, the time is recorded. The results indicate that the activity of alpha amylase increases with decreasing acidity and is highest at pH7. The trend in effect of temperature on amylase activity is that it increases in the middle range but is inactive at extreme temperatures. The results do not agree with the expected results of previous similar experiments and repeats of the same experiment within the class do not concur with others Discussion The hypothesis being tested is that enzymatic reactions are effected by a number of external factors. Temperature and pH are thought to be the most important extrinsic factors. The objective was to examine the activity of the enzyme ÃŽÂ ±-amylase under the effect of increasing environmental temperatures and increasing pH levels and to determine the optimal temperature and pH for Alpha amylase activity. The starch medium selected was Barley. This is a good choice due to its ready availability, the ease of preparation and the body of work available on understanding its germination process due to its importance in the brewing industry. Barley is composed of 53% to 65% dry weight starch (Fox et al (2003), MacGregor 1978, Sanford et al 2003). Barley produces its own amylases during the germination period. The changes in the levels of ÃŽÂ ±- amylase detected in barley during germination are outlined by McGregor et al (1984). The breakdown of starch in barley involves two types of amylase ÃŽÂ ±-amylase and ÃŽÂ ²-amylase. The former works by hydrolysing the 1-4 bonds within the glucose chain exposing non-reducing ends for the beta amylase to split (fig 3.) (Keusch 2003). Prior to germination there is no amylase detected in Barley, a trace was found after 24 hours germination, but after that it was found to increase rapidly (MacGregor 1978). figure 3. www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/nat_Fak_IV/Organische_Chemie/Didaktik/Keusch/Grafik/sucrose.gifimgrefurl The optimal temperature and pH for ÃŽÂ ±-amylase extracted from barley is well studied. Fox et al (2003) state an optimal temperature of 65Â °C and a pH of 5.5. ORourke (2002) gives optimal values of 67Â °C and pH 5.2 (table 3) while lower temperature values of 55Â °C for optimum activity of alpha amylase are given in other papers (Al-Bar 2009 and MacGregor 1978). The first two papers are written from an industrial and brewing viewpoint whereas the latter are written from a pure scientific evaluation of the characteristics of barley, this may have some bearing on the different temperatures cited keeping in mind that 60Â °C is the temperature used in mashing. The optimal temperature for amylase activity differs for different sources, Azuki beans , finger millet and wheat have optimum temperatures of 70Â °C, 45Â °C and 55Â °C respectively (Al-Bar 2009). In mammals the temp ph of the body fluids are kept constant at homeostatic condition. If the body temp ph varies from the optimum body temp ph, the enzymes activity decreases and the cellular respiration process which produces ATP energy cell mover would be affected in the body. Less ATP energy the body cells cannot perform the work which they need. The results of the present experiment did not comply with these expected results. From the literature the theory was that Amylase activity would increase with increasing temperature until a maximum level would be reached around 55Â °C and there after it would decrease as it was denatured at higher temperatures, ultimately showing no activity at 80Â °C. Likewise the effect of pH was anticipated to find increasing amylase activity with inc reased pH level to optimal between 5-6 and a decrease reaching neutral pH. While the average results were basically compliant there was a great variation in individual group results. Amylases are important across the spectrum of living organisms; they are required for the breakdown of carbohydrates, which is one of the four essential food groups and the main source of energy to living cells. Amylases are enzymes that increase the activity of a reaction without being consumed in the reaction. The reaction they are involved in is hydrolysis of carbohydrate which is the cleaving of bonds and the addition of water (Hogg 2005). Two main forms exist, alpha amylase and beta amylase, both hydrolyse carbohydrates but in different way. Alpha amylase is the faster acting as it can act on any part of the carbohydrate chain but beta amylase can only act on the non reducing ends which are produced in increasing amounts after the activity of alpha amylase. In plants amylases are largely involved in the germination of seed; temperature may be the trigger for onset of this process. In animals amylases are found in association with the digestive system, ptyalin in the mouth and fr om the pancreas. The amylase enzymes hydrolysis the disaccharides sugar and maltose into monosaccharides glucose galactose which are the smaller molecules of starch that are suitable for absorption in the small intestine for ultimate body use. As an enzyme it binds the substrates together, promotes the hydrolysis and frees the products (fig 4.), and if denatured at high temperatures this cannot happen Figure 4. http://kvhs.nbed.nb.ca/gallant/biology/biology.html From the results obtained and the discussion hitherto the indications are that the results of the present experiment are in error. The anticipated optimal temperature and pH based on previous experiments were Temperature 55Â °C and pH 5. The optimal results from the present experiment were 22Â °C and pH 6.4. This is a well practiced experiment with well recognised results. looking at the results where some conform to the expected and others have results that are un expected it is most likely that the deviation is due to human error, as in not mixing solutions correctly, not maintaining the test tubes at a constant temperature, mixing up samples and not monitoring the time of reaction correctly. The observation of colour changes is also highly subjective, the precise time of change being difficult to detect. Improvements could include using: a spectrophotometer to measure change of amount of starch remaining and then it must be blanked correctly before use. shaking equipment to ensure correct mixing using the same amylase as preparation by different groups might not have been adequate Concentration of substrate, exactness of measurement. Lack of closer attention by the operator can lead to error. Reaction rates, solutions and indicator need to be observed or calculated correctly to avoid errors. In conclusion, to improve on the experiment in future, proper attention and observation is very important.

Mental Health issues in Adults Essay

Mental health is defined in Healthy People 2020 as encompassing the ability to engage in productive activities and fulfilling relationships with other people, to adapt to change and to cope with adversity (USDHHS, 2010). In the United States nearly 57.7 Million adults (18 years and above) suffer from a mental health disorder in a given year and 6% of the population suffers from a serious mental illness (NIMH, 2010). The purpose of this paper is to look into the perspective of how best one can advocate for mental health disorder as a population health issue through various strategies including policy change. Population Health Issue and Population Affected Mental health disorders have no boundaries and affect all people without regard to gender, race or age. They are the leading cause of disability in North America (WHO, 2008b). Despite the staggering number of people with mental health disorders, only 25% obtain help in any part of the health care system, while the majority receives no specialty mental health care. It is unrealistic to have a goal of â€Å"decreasing the prevalence of mental illness† because mental illness by its nature is a complex bio psychosocial disorder and any stressful event in life may be the cause of mental health problem and everyone is susceptible to it. According to Byers et al. the number of people age 55 and above suffering from mood or anxiety disorders has been increasing for the last two decades and it has a trend of doubling itself every five years. This alarming trend will soon become a public health crisis as a large number of â€Å"baby boomer† generation ages. The increasing number of returning veterans is also another dimension to this crisis. A study conducted by RAND Corporation found that nearly twenty percent of servicemen and women returning from recent wars have some form of mental health condition (RAND, 2008). The estimated societal costs for the veterans based on prevalence and two years of treatment is estimated between $4.0 to 6.2 million. Advocacy Programs Researched in This Area The impact of mental illness on overall health and productivity in the US is often under recognized. There are many reasons for this under recognition; mainly the misunderstanding of the illness itself, lack of resources, stigma, or lack of social support can be cited. The World Health Organization (WHO) in recognition of the need for adequate resources launched a mental health initiative called Mental Health Global Action Program (mhGAP) to raise awareness and address a variety unmet needs. Other than WHO, consumer advocacy groups such as the National Alliance for the Mentally Ill (NAMI) deserve the credit for the advances made in the treatment of mental illness. The Paul Wellstone and Pete Domenici Mental Health Act otherwise known as the Mental Health Parity and Addiction Equity Act (MHPAEA) was signed into law in 2008. The main goal of this Act is to eliminate unequal health treatment practice that has kept individuals from seeking mental health care for a long time. The way this law works it that it does not force group health plans to cover mental health benefits, however when plans cover mental health, it requires that they provide full and equal benefit in a way that is no more restrictive than all other medical and surgical procedures covered by the plan. Effective Attributes of the Programs MHPAEA has had quite an impact on the population since it went in effect in 2010. For starter, the statute does not require for employers to buy mental health benefits and employers with less than 50 employees are exempt of this statute. The second important point is that MHPAEA stipulates that any State law that provides greater protections than MHPAEA may continue to remain in effect. The last stipulation is great because it stops the Federal law (MHPAEA) from overriding a State law assuming that it protects its constituents better. Unfortunately some employers have taken MHPAEA as an excuse to drop mental health benefits in its entirety. The Screen Writers Guild was the first employer to announce its decision to drop mental health coverage for its 12000 employees. Some employers followed suit citing rising cost of insurance and burden on employers. NAMI argues cutting mental health benefits has higher cost to employers. According to NAMI most mental illnesses are highly treatable. For example, the most common mental illness in the United States is depression. The prevalence of depression is estimated to be 1 in 10 individuals of which 75% do not get the diagnosis nor the treatment. 72% are estimated to be in the workforce. NAMI estimates the indirect loss to employers amounts to 79 billion per year out of which 63 billion reflect loss of productivity due to mental illness. Mental illness causes more days of work loss and work impairement than chronic conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, asthma, arthritis, back pain and heart disease (NAMI, 2012). NAMI also claims that within two weeks of treatment 70 to 90% of individuals with depressions see a significant reduction of symptoms with and improved quality of life therefore it would be wise for employers to provide employees mental health coverage than incur costs for absenteeism. Health Advocacy Plan and Objectives for the Policy Implemented The very first step of making a health advocacy plan is to review and understand the existing health plans and be able to establish how they impact on the patients, health care providers and other stakeholders like insurers and the leaders (Jonas & Kovner, 2011). The next step is to establish the pros and cons of having such health plans (Jonas & Kovner, 2011). This would then influence a particular advocacy plan and the objectives of the policy. The objectives should take into account the prime position played by politicians in policy change (Alberta Heath Services, 2009). To effectively advocate for mental health, one needs to understand what is actually available. The facts are as follows: The US Department of Health and Human Services estimates that 47 Million of Americans are uninsured and out of this number 25% of them suffer from mental health or substance abuse disorder or a combination of the two. 1/3 of insured individuals have no coverage of both including outpatient therapy visits and inpatient crisis intervention. Then there is MHPAEA that exempts small groups therefore individuals insured under small group market may not have mental health coverage (unless the employer chose to provide one). The HHS estimates that about 95 percent of those with small group market coverage have substance abuse and mental health benefits (HHS, 2012). Communication to Various Stakeholders Communication in the public health sector can be done in several forms including through the mass media, seminars, schools, and churches and depending on the situation, place and target group, several methods can be used including posters, speeches, skits and literature among others. As a policy oriented approach, it divides the target audience into primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary target addresses the organizations, groups and people with the power to effect change. The secondary target is represented by those who can be mobilized to participate in the implementation. The tertiary target is the general public (Alberta Heath Services, 2009). In effect, therefore, mass media as means of advocacy help the organizations and the general public to make better health choices. The approach of communication NAMI took is to involve all three targets. The tertiary target i.e. the general public has also been the focus of NAMI especially because of the link between mental illness and substance abuse. Efforts to raise awareness are underway especially in the DC metro area where frequent walks organized by NAMI are happening. The aim of NAMI walks is to raise awareness of mental health and well-being in communities and to improve the general understanding of the illness, and reduce the misunderstandings and stigma associated with it. NAMI educates and trains practitioners and patients of the different pathways to recovery. Health practitioners, especially nurses get a larger opportunity to educate about the disease in their area of practice and also be the voices for the patients who do not have a voice. Data and Evidence to Substantiate Proposed Need The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), which is commonly referred to as the ObamaCare, has become regarded as a historical law ever since it was signed into the law in March 23rd, 2010 by President Obama (American Public Health Association, 2013). ACA built on the structures of MHPAEA to expand coverage of mental health and substance use disorder for more than 62 million Americans in the following three ways: 1.Essential Health Benefits Mental health and substance use disorders will be part of all individual and small group market â€Å"non-grandfathered† insurance plans (essential health benefits) effective January 1st 2014. â€Å"non-grandfathered† means plans that were not in existence before ACA was signed into law. This statute ensures that at least 5.1 million individuals (3.9 million currently covered in the individual market and 1.2 covered in small group plans) and will gain either mental health or substance use disorder coverage or both. 2.Parity in the Individual and Small Group Markets Under the ACA and the MHPAEA 7.1 million Americans currently covered in the individual market who currently have some mental health and substance use disorder benefits will have access to coverage of Essential Health Benefits comparable to their general and surgical medical coverage. 3.Increasing Access to Quality Health Care Finally, the ACA will expand essential health benefits insurance coverage to an estimated 27 million uninsured Americans through access to insurance market places and CMS. The essential Health Benefits packages includes mental health services In total, the Affordable Care Act will expand federal parity protection to at least 62 million Americans. Application of Attributes of Effective Advocacy Programs to Proposed Campaign Among many other health-care policies that have proved to be workable, Obamacare turned out to have adequate advantages that can be borrowed and applied in this campaign. Obamacare health policy emphasizes on quality health-care and not quantity. For instance, doctors and other health-care professionals are paid according to the quality of health service they provide (Obama Care Facts, 2013). Obamacare also highlights the importance of non-discrimination in the provision of health services across the entire population, thus ensuring uniformity in its application. One yet another vital attribute that is also of importance is the reduction of costs for preventive health-care options. This ensures that options explored by the general public are not exploitative and overburdening to them (Obama Care Facts, 2013). Obamacare has also been to a greater degree people-driven, as the citizenry have been effective in pushing their political leaders to support the health plan (Obama Care Facts, 2013). It does not take rocket science to know that mental health and substance abuse disorder patients would benefit tremendously from such a program. Impact of Existing Laws or Regulations The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act legislation contained several health reforms provisions that were already being rooted for by a number of health stakeholders including American Public Health Association (APHA) and other population health experts (APHA, 2013). Following the enactment of the Affordable Care Act, there has been a shift from the focus on treatment of the sick to the focus on promoting people’s health (APHA, 2013). The ACA and HP2020 have a common goal which is to create social and physical environments that promote health and wellness in all populations. The ACA will be effective in January 2014, so far the program looks very promising and the statute have been found to have very little impact on the employer-based insurance with a projected slight increase (2.7% only), especially with regard to the high end employers. However, there appears to be a decrease for the low end employers (Blumberg et al., 2012) contrary to what the critics of ACA are speculating. Analysis of Methods Used to Influence Policy Makers According to Milstead (2013), for nurses to succeed in advocating for the enactment of new and better policies, it is imperative that they strike a working relationship with the government agencies, officers as well as with the elected officials. This way the nurses have the chance to be recognized as having what it takes to effect policies concerning population health issues, and this will thus be included in making decisions concerning population health matters (Milstead, 2013). Establishing such a cordial relationship would be instrumental in helping both parties, namely the nurses and the policy makers to be able to review existing health policies and enact better campaigns (Milstead, 2013). Other than striking a rapport with the political leaders, the nurses should also strive to enhance their understanding of the policy-making process through the nursing internships that were already put in place by the nursing organizations (Milstead, 2013). Anticipated Obstacles and Strategies According to the online article by Alberta Health Services (2009), several challenges abound when it comes to advocating for population health. The leading and most obvious problem lies in the main aim of advocacy, which is to effect legislations that would then lead to changes in policies. This is the case since the policy change is highly a political issue whose process results in public tensions (Alberta Health Services, 2009). Almost all legislative changes and implementations are funded by the public resources, and, therefore, any suggested changes are often contested (Alberta Health Services, 2009). Further still, these changes often have economic consequences as well. As a result, more often than not population health advocates together with the like-minded politicians and members of the public of good will find themselves at the receiving end on the part of various interest groups who wish to maintain the status quo (Alberta Health Services, 2009). Obamacare, which seeks to provide preventive services also covered in insurance plans and to ascertain that people with insurance covers are not dropped while sick, has for instance, faced several obstacles mainly from the stakeholders in the insurance industry (Obama Care Facts, 2013). Anybody who wishes to conduct a successful advocacy for mental health and substance abuse disorders must be prepared to deal with all these obstacles, especially given that most insurance companies would be less willing to cover against mental health. View as multi-pages

Comparative Criminal Justice Systems

In Phillip L. Reichel’s book Criminal Justice systems 6th edition Phillip Reichel uses the historical, political and descriptive approaches to compare criminal justice systems, although it is the institution and actors strategy that Lynch emphasizes. Legal systems and legal traditions have been studied and compared since the early 18th century. We will be discussing why criminal justice systems are studied and evaluating and comparing how the historical, political and descriptive approaches are used to study today’s criminal justice systems.In reference to why we study other justice systems although a society cannot replace their legal system completely with that of another country’s legal system it is important that we use comparative studies, as there are both provincial and universal benefits. Comparing how other criminal justice systems operate provides a point of contrast for a country’s own justice system also enabling them to analyse and to better u nderstand their legal system in order to help improve the way in which their system operates.As to the universal benefits comparative studies help nations to better understand differences and similarities in other nation’s justice systems to help them cooperate and work together to combat international crime. Although law enforcement agencies have worked together for centuries with the first extradition agreement between America and Great Britain being made in 1794. One may suggest that it is essential that criminal justice systems work more closely today than ever before as organised crime has developed more on an international scale. Countries can co-operate together on both a bilateral and multinational basis.The latter being where more than two countries work together for example the EU and the former being where two countries work together usually neighbours for example America and Canada. As with all three approaches the primary goal is to convey information. With the h istorical approach information studied is used to tell us what mistakes and successes have already occurred and what earlier experiences tell us about the present. Although perhaps the most important benefit gained from using the historical approach is how knowledge of the past prepare us for the future?As the criminal justice system and judiciary changes over time and by not having an understanding of the past one may suggest it would be difficult to prepare for the future. Over the years there have been many changes in criminal justice systems around the world and the historical approach has helped legal systems learn from past mistakes and successes in their penitentiary system’s, rehabilitation processes, judiciary, case law and other areas such as investigative techniques and the way in which we gather evidence.As mentioned some of the benefits of using an historical approach is how knowledge of the past can help prepare us for the future and what we can learn from our m istakes and successes. Improving conviction rates and decreasing wrongful convictions has always been a goal sought by criminal justice systems globally. The introduction of DNA had a huge impact on law enforcement agencies around the world and improved the way they investigated crimes, gathered evidence, prosecuted, solved crimes, decrease wrongful convictions and helped in exonerating people who had already been wrongfully convicted people.In 2002 the innocence project was set up in the United States and as of December 2011, 307 were exonerated of wrongful convictions by the use of DNA testing since 1989, 17 of whom had been sentenced to death. The first use of DNA was in England in Leicester when police asked Dr. Alec J. Jeffery’s in 1986 to help identify a suspect involved in two rape-murders. The tests actually cleared the original suspect and police then took several hundred DNA samples from males in the local area which led to Robert Melias being the first person being convicted with the use of DNA in 1987.After this case America began using DNA evidence and Tommy Lee Andrew was the first person to be convicted in the United States in November 1987 also for rape. Another example of the historical approach is Gustave de Beaumont’s and Alex de Tocquellive’s report of the American penitentiary structure in 1831 and 1832 and the French’s prison system. They criticised the French penitentiary system as it was costly to the treasury, was low on discipline and there was a high rate of inmates being sent back to prison.The American system however showed a profit as inmates were made to work during the day and there was a high level of discipline as inmates were kept in isolation at night. Having the system run this way not only showed a profit but also provided a low rate of recommittals. Gustave de Beaumont and Alex de Tocquellive’s compared the American penitentiary system with not only their own French system but also the p enitentiary system of Switzerland. Their report suggested ways to try and help their system by incorporating the American system and is an example of how we can learn from earlier mistakes and successes.As discussed one of the reasons we compare legal systems is in order for countries to work together to combat crime they must understand the differences and similarities in how their legal systems operate. Although for a country to work with another country it is also important to understand each other’s political system. The political approach is of importance when comparing legal systems as politics not only has an effect on a nation’s justice system but also effects interaction among nations.An example of how politics has effected both a nation’s justice system and interaction among nations is the case of Yvonne Fletcher. On the 17th April 1984 Yvonne Fletcher a Police officer was on duty during a protest outside the Libyan embassy. Without warning from one of the windows of the embassy gunfire was discharged at the protesters. Eleven people were injured including Fletcher who was fatally wounded after being hit in the stomach. Yvonne Fletcher died one hour later after being taken to Westminster hospital.The shooting resulted in MI5 being called and armed police surrounding the Libyan embassy for eleven days in one of the longest police sieges in London’s history. Britain at the time had diplomatic relations with Libra which meant they needed permission from the Libyan government to enter their embassy as under International law an embassy is a diplomatic premise. Although police were aware of this they still wanted to enter the Libyan embassy but at least needed authorization from the British prime minster, then Margaret Thatcher.As Margaret Thatcher was not in the country the responsibility was Douglas Herd’s then Home secretary to negotiate permission from the Libyan government to enter their embassy or to ignore Interna tional law and enter the embassy without their permission. The leader of the Libyan government then Gaddafi not only decided to not give consent to enter the Libyan embassy but declared that their embassy was under attack and in turn Libyan soldier’s surrounded the British embassy in Libya. With the risk to employees of the British embassy being harmed and diplomaticimmunity under International law the British government allowed the embassy staff to leave the building and escorted them to the airport to return to Libya. As a result of the embassy siege and Yvonne Fletcher the United Kingdom ended all diplomatic relations with Libya and in 1987 passed the diplomatic and consular premises act. The Diplomatic and consular premises act 1987 allows the UK government to determine which land is considered to be a diplomatic or consular premise and has been used once when the Cambodian embassy was occupied by squatters.Another example of how politics has effected a nation’s ju stice system is the war on Iraq. In 2003 George Bush declared war on Iraq and within a month America had declared victory. Although the American army had taken control there was widespread looting and riots and the need for a new police force was required. New York City’s former police commissioner Bernard Kerik was given the task to not only reform the police but to improve other areas such as: the border controls and customs.Bernard Kerik decided that the best way to do this was to retrain the Iraqi police force from everything from human rights to the use of fire arms. The training was out sourced to an American consulting firm called Dyn Corp International, this is an example of how a political system can influence a nation’s police force. Today there are 42,000 members of the Iraqi police all of which have completed the training provided by DynCorp International with more than 5,700 also completing specialized training from the Italian police and NATO.Although whe n comparing legal systems Lynch uses the historical and political approaches it is the descriptive approach and in particular the institution and actors strategy that Lynch emphasizes on for his book. In order for us to evaluate and compare each other’s legal system’s we first need to know how a system is supposed to operate. The descriptive approach gives as a description of how a country’s legal system is supposed to operate. It is by using the descriptive approach that we can compare similarities and differences between legal systems.The descriptive approach use’s two strategies the functions and procedures strategy and the institution and actors strategy. The main difference between the functions and procedures and institutions and actors strategy is that the institutions and actors strategy enables us to compare a large number of legal systems. It is because of this that Lynch emphasizes this strategy. The functions and procedures strategy can help u s group and compare countries based on their similarities as Lynch argues that all countries require that similar jobs be done or thou there may be more differences between the people doing the job then the jobs themselves.The functions and procedures strategy is not as helpful when comparing differences between legal systems. For example America, France and China have procedures for arrest and gathering evidence or trying to protect suspects against prolonged pre-trial detention. The functions and procedures strategy can be used to group such countries and compare similarities for example America, France and China all have time limits on how long a suspect should be held without charge. However when comparing a large number of legal systems on how they try to protect suspects against prolonged pre-trial detention we may find more differences.The institution’s and actors strategies approach helps us more when there are more differences between legal systems. For example when comparing how countries protect suspects against prolonged pre-trial detention. If there are a number of differences the institution and actors strategy compares systems based on their institutions such as their courts and corrections thus enabling to compare more countries and both similarities as well as more differences. The Historical, Political and Descriptive approaches each provide ways to compare criminal justice systems and each have their own benefits.The Historical approach tells us how knowledge of the past can help us prepare for the future and helps us learn from past mistakes and successes. The Political approach tells us how politics can affect a nation’s justice system as well as interaction among other nations. The descriptive approach (functions and procedures/institution and actors strategies) explains how a nation’s justice system is supposed to operate, the main components of a justice system and helps us compare a large number of different justic e systems.We compare legal systems not only for the provincial benefits but also to improve multinational cooperation to help combat international crime. Organized crime has increased over the years and criminals work more closely with criminals from other nations, as Thomas Friedman a New York columnist writes in his book â€Å"The world is flat†. Therefore it is equally important if not more important that criminal justice systems work together and understand each other’s legal systems and traditions.